ABMP: Anatomy and Physiology

Orientation to the Human Body

Terminology

Abdominal - Relating to the abdomen.

Abdominopelvic cavity - One of two ventral cavities of the body, comprised of the abdominal and pelvic regions.

Abduction - Movement away from the midline of the body.

Acromial - Relating to the acromion process of the shoulder, recognized as the highest point of the shoulder.

Active transport - A cellular transport mechanism that requires energy to move substances against a concentration or pressure gradient.

Adduction - Movement toward the midline.

Anatomic position - A position with the body erect, arms at the sides, and palms forward. This position is important in anatomy because it is the means by which directional and movement terms are referenced. Terms like anterior and posterior, medial and lateral, abduction and adduction, and flexion and extension form a common understanding of anatomical position.

Anatomic terminology - Specific terms to describe location, characteristics, movement, and direction of the form and structure of the body.

Anatomy - The form and structure of an organism, and the study of that form and structure.

Antebrachial - The arm between the elbow and the wrist commonly known as the forearm.

Antecubital - Relating to the anterior elbow.

Anterior - Direction referring to the front of the body.

Atom - The smallest particle of an element, composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons; a collection of atoms is called a molecule.

Axillary - Relating to the area of the armpit.

Brachial - Relating to the upper arm.

Calcaneal - Relating to the heel of the foot.

Cardiovascular system - The body system comprised of heart and blood vessels.

Carpal - Relating to the wrist.

Cell - The basic building block of the body.

Cellular level - The second level of structural organization of the body where molecules form cells.

Central - Relating to the center of the body.

Centrosomes - Organelles near the nucleus of the cell from which spindle fibers develop in cell division.

Cervical - Relating to the neck.

Chemical level - The most basic level of structural organization of the body where atoms combine to form molecules.

Circumduction - A combination of movements that occur in the frontal and sagittal planes that allow for arching, circular motions, such as when swimming the backstroke. Movement combinations in appendicular body parts include flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction. Movement combinations in axial body parts include right lateral flexion, extension, left lateral flexion, and flexion. Movements in various combinations of the arm, thigh, hand, foot, head, neck, trunk, and pelvis can be described as circumduction.

Compounds - Substances consisting of atoms or ions of variant elements bound together.

Connective tissue - The most abundant of the four types of tissue in the body; serves to bind, support, protect, insulate, and transport.

Contralateral - A comparative term referring to something being on the opposite side of the median of the body.

Coxal - Relating to the hip area.

Cranial - Relating to the head.

Cranial cavity - The cavity of the skull occupied by the brain.

Crural - Relating to the lower leg.

Cubital - Relating to the elbow.

Cutaneous membrane - Skin; the outer membrane of the body composed of the dermis and epidermis.

Cytoplasm - The internal environment of a cell between the plasma membrane and the nucleus.

Cytoskeleton - The structure of protein filaments and tubules that branch through the cytoplasm to form a strong internal scaffolding for cells.

Deep - Referring to a structure farther within the body (deep to the surface of the body).

Depression (anatomy) - A hollow or concave shape on a part of the body.

Depression (movement) - A movement that can occur at the mandible, scapula, clavicle, pelvis, and hyoid bone in the sagittal or frontal plane when the body part moves inferiorly (down). For example, when the mouth is open, the mandible is depressed. It is the opposite movement to elevation.

Diffusion - Substances moving according to a pressure gradient, specifically movement from an area of higher concentration to lower.

Digestive system - The system of the body that ingests, processes, absorbs food, and eliminates waste products.

Digital - Relating to the digits (fingers or toes).

Disease - An abnormal or pathological condition in the body.

Distal - In limbs, situated away from the axial body.

Dorsal - The back (posterior) or upper side, as in the top of the foot.

Dorsiflexion - Flexion of the dorsal aspect of the foot.

Downward rotation - Rotating a body part in an inferior direction.

Elements - Substances that cannot be chemically broken down into simpler substances.

Elevation - A movement that can occur at the mandible, scapula, clavicle, pelvis, and hyoid bone in the sagittal or frontal plane when the body part moves superiorly (e.g., when the mouth is closed, the mandible is elevated). It is the opposite movement to depression.

Endocrine system - A system comprised of endocrine glands which secrete hormones; works with the nervous system to regulate various processes in other systems of the body.

Endoplasmic reticulum - The cell organelle that creates channels to allow for intracellular movement of substances. The endoplasmic reticulum serves many general functions, including the folding of protein molecules in sacs called cisternae and the transport of synthesized proteins to the Golgi apparatus.

Epithelial tissue - One of four basic tissue types in the body; a membranous cellular tissue that covers a surface or lines a tube or cavity, and serves to enclose, protect, produce secretions and excretions, and function in assimilation.

Eversion - A movement that occurs in the tarsal joints of the foot in the frontal plane when the plantar surface of the foot pivots to face away from the midline of the body. It is the opposite movement to inversion.

Extension - A movement at a joint that takes place in the sagittal plane with the body part moving posteriorly (with the exception of the knee, which extends in an anterior movement in the sagittal plane). It is the opposite movement to flexion.

External - Related to the outside of the body.

Facilitated diffusion - The passive transport mechanism in which carrier molecules in the cell membrane assist in moving specific substances across the plasma membrane.

Fascial system - A system that includes all fibrous connective tissue (e.g., fascia, tendons, aponeuroses, ligaments, capsules).

Femoral - Relating to the thigh (upper leg).

Filtration - In the cell, a cellular passive transport system in which substances move from an area of higher to lower pressure.

Flexion - A movement at a joint that takes place in the sagittal plane with the body part moving anteriorly (with the exception of the knee, which flexes posteriorly in the sagittal plane). It is the opposite movement to extension.

Frontal - The front surface of the body.

Frontal plane - An imaginary flat surface that bisects the body between the front and back (also called coronal plane).

Gluteal - Relating to the gluteal muscles (buttocks).

Golgi apparatus - The cellular organelle that processes and packages proteins and fats.

Health - A state of the body functioning well, with the absence of disease or illness.

Health-care terminology - The words and definitions relating to the field of health care.

Homeostasis - A state of internal balance in the body.

Idiopathic - Disease or illness with no known cause.

Inferior - A direction toward the lower portion of the body or below a particular structure.

Inguinal - Relating to the groin (anterior hips).

Inorganic compound - A compound made of molecules that do not contain carbon.

Integumentary system - The skin and its accessory organs (hair, nails, cuticles, and oil and sweat glands).

Internal - Inside the body.

Inversion - A movement that occurs in the tarsal joints of the foot in the frontal plane when the plantar surface of the foot pivots to face the midline of the body. It is the opposite movement to eversion.

Ion - An atom or molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons and acquired a positive or negative charge.

Ipsilateral - A relative term describing something as being on the same side of the midline of the body.

Lateral - A direction away from the midline of the body.

Lateral flexion - A movement at a joint that takes place in the frontal plane when an axial body part bends to the left or to the right.

Lateral rotation - A movement at a joint that takes place in the transverse plane when the anterior surface of a body part rotates away from the midline of the body. This movement occurs at the hip joint and shoulder joint. It is the opposite movement to medial rotation.

Left lower quadrant - One of four quadrants of the abdominopelvic cavity located on the left lower region.

Left upper quadrant - One of the four quadrants of the abdominopelvic cavity located on the left upper region.

Lumbar - Relating to the lower back area.

Lymphatic system - A system composed of lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes responsible for immunity, nutrient absorption, and fluid return.

Lysosomes - Small sacs filled with digestive enzymes that break down molecules within a cell.

Manual - Related to the hand.

Medial - A direction toward the midline of the body.

Medial rotation - A movement at a joint that takes place in the transverse plane when the anterior surface of a body part rotates toward the midline of the body. This movement occurs at the hip joint and shoulder joint. It is the opposite movement to lateral rotation.

Medical dictionary - A reference text for medical terminology, pathology, pharmacology, etc.

Mitochondria - The cellular organelle that produces ATP (energy for the cell).

Molecule - The particles formed by the bond of two or more atoms; the smallest unit of substance that exhibits properties of an element or compound.

Mucous membrane - The epithelial membrane that secretes mucus and lines cavities and passages that open to the external environment.

Muscle tissue -One of four major types of tissue in the body; tissue that has the ability to contract.

Muscular system - A system made up of muscle that moves the skeletons, supports and protects internal organs, and maintains posture.

Nasal - Relating to the nose.

Negative feedback - The most common homeostatic control mechanism by which an effector response counterbalances an original stimulus resulting in hormone regulation.

Nervous system - System composed of brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves; works with the endocrine system to facilitate communication and regulation in the body.

Nervous tissue - One of four major types of tissue in the body; tissue that is specialized to react to stimuli and to conduct impulses to various organs in the body, which then bring about a response to the stimulus.

Nucleus - The central command station of the cell; contains the DNA.

Occipital - Relating to the occiput (base of the skull).

Olecranal - Relating to the posterior point of the elbow.

Oral - Relating to the mouth.

Orbital - Relating to the orbit of the eye.

Organ level - Considering the body on the level of individual organs.

Organ system level - A way of considering the body on the level of systems of organs (e.g., cardiovascular system, digestive system, etc.).

Organic compound - A compound that contains carbon molecules.

Organism level - In the study of anatomy, the human body is explored through different levels of organization. The organism level is the highest level of organization. It is the sum total of all structural levels working together. It is the human being (or organism) as a whole.

Osmosis - Diffusion of water molecules through a semipermeable membrane from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration until equilibrium is reached.

Otic - Relating to the ear.

Palmar - Relating to the palm of the hand.

Passive transport - The cellular transport mechanism that does not require expending energy to move small molecules across the membrane of a cell by diffusion.

Patellar - Relating to the anterior knee.

Pathology - The medical science concerned with disease or abnormal function.

Pectoral - Relating to the chest.

Pedal - Relating to the foot.

Pelvic - Relating to the pelvis.

Peripheral - Relating to the periphery of the body (farther from the midline).

Peroneal - Relating to the lateral lower leg.

Plantar - Relating to the bottom of the foot.

Plantar flexion - A movement that occurs in the joints of the foot in the sagittal plane when the plantar surface of the foot moves inferiorly so that the toes are pointed downward. It is the opposite movement to dorsiflexion.

Plasma membrane - The semipermeable boundary encapsulating all cells; also known as cell membrane.

Popliteal - Relating to the posterior knee.

Positive feedback - The least common homeostatic control mechanism; response to stimuli is maintained until no longer needed.

Posterior - A direction relating to the back of the body.

Predisposing causes - The conditions of the body that make a person more likely to experience other symptoms, illnesses, or diseases.

Prefix (word element) - In the study of anatomic terminology, a prefix is a word element added to the front of a root to modify its meaning.

Pronation - A movement at the forearm that takes place in the transverse plane when the forearm rotates so that the palm is facing downward and the radius crosses over the ulna. It is the opposite movement to supination.

Prone position - Laying face down.

Protraction - A movement that can occur at the mandible, scapula, and clavicle in the sagittal plane when the body part moves anteriorly. It is the opposite movement to retraction.

Proximal - Closer to the axial body.

Pubic - Relating to the genital region.

Reproductive system - A system consisting of gonads and accessory organs responsible for male and female sexual characteristics and the reproductive process.

Respiratory system - A system made up of lungs and airways involved in the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the blood.

Retraction - A movement that can occur at the mandible, scapula, and clavicle in the sagittal plane when the body part moves posteriorly. It is the opposite movement to protraction.

Ribosomes - The cell organelle that synthesizes proteins.

Right lower quadrant - One of four quadrants of the abdominopelvic cavity located on the right lower region.

Right upper quadrant - One of the four quadrants of the abdominopelvic cavity located on the right upper region.

Root - The base of a structure.

Root (word element) - In the study of anatomic terminology, a root is a word element that provides the core meaning of a word. They are usually combined with prefixes and suffixes to create medical terms.

Rotation - A movement about a fixed point in a single axis that can occur in any plane.

Sacral - Relating to the sacrum or tailbone region.

Sagittal plane - The vertical plane that divides the body into right and left segments.

Scapular - Relating to the shoulder blade.

Serous membrane - The epithelial membrane that folds to cover organs and line cavities that do not open to the outside environment.

Signs - Objective indicators of disease that are generally measurable.

Skeletal system - The system composed of bones and joints.

Spinal - Relating to the spine.

Spinal cavity - A cavity that contains the spinal cord.

Sternal - Relating to the breast bone.

Suffix (word element) - In the study of anatomic terminology, a suffix is a word element attached to the end of a root to modify its meaning.

Superficial - On or near the surface of the body.

Superior - A direction toward the upper portion of the body or above a particular structure.

Supination - A movement at the forearm that takes place in the transverse plane when the forearm rotates so that the palm is facing upward and the radius and ulna are parallel to each other. It is the opposite movement to pronation.

Supine position - Laying face up.

Sural - Relating to the posterior lower leg.

Symptoms - Subjective indicators of disease described by the patient/client; not easily measured/quantified.

Synovial membrane - A layer of connective tissue that lines the cavities of joints, tendon sheaths, and bursae, and makes synovial fluid.

Tarsal - Relating to the ankle.

Temporal - Relating to the temporal bone of the cranium.

Thoracic - Relating to the chest cavity.

Thoracic cavity - The chest cavity that contains the lungs and heart; located above the abdominopelvic cavity.

Tissue level - Considering the body on the level of individual tissues.

Transverse plane - Horizontal plane that divides the body into superior and inferior segments.

Umbilical - Relating to the navel.

Upward rotation - A movement that can occur at the scapula and clavicle in the vertical plane. The scapula rotates so that the glenoid fossa orients superiorly. The clavicle rotates so that the inferior surface faces anteriorly. It is the opposite movement to downward rotation.

Urinary system - The system involved in the elimination of fluid wastes and regulation of hydration and electrolytes.

Ventral - The front or anterior side of the body.

Vertebral - Relating to the vertebrae of the spine.

Vesicles - The small sacs containing liquid inside cells or tissues.

Well-being - A general state of health, happiness, and satisfaction.

Wellness model - A plan for decreasing stress, encouraging growth in every facet of life, and finding satisfaction in life's purpose.

Word elements - Aspects, or elements, of Greek and Latin words that are used for anatomical terms, including their prefixes, roots, and suffixes.

Practice Quiz

1. Movement at the intertarsal joints facing the plantar surface of the foot laterally is called:

a. evulsion

b. inversion

c. lateral flexion

d. eversion

2. Lumbar refers to the:

a. right lower quadrant

b. low-back region

c. sacral area

d. midthoracic part of the spine

3. A word, or fragment, attached to the end of a word to change its meaning is a:

a. suffix

b. addendum

c. noun

d. pronoun

4. The prefix "sten" describes a:

a. narrowing

b. opening

c. widening

d. stillness

5. What is the body system that contains the heart and arteries?

a. respiratory system

b. cardiovascular system

c. urinary system

d. activating system

6. "Cutaneous membrane" refers to the:

a. synovial membrane

b. aponeurosis

c. cuticles of the fingernail

d. skin

7. What is a term referring to the outer surface of the body?

a. epidermal

b. internal

c. external

d. subliminal

8. What is the part of the abdomen to the right of the midline and below the umbilicus?

a. hepatic area

b. right lower quadrant

c. appendicular area

d. right upper quadrant

9. What do you call a condition of unknown origin?

a. pathological

b. phenomenological

c. idiopathic

d. mysterious

10. Popliteal refers to the:

a, lower leg

b. fibula

c. back of the knee

d. lateral maleolus

11.

Practice Quiz Answer Key

1. D

2. B

3. A

4. A

5. B

6. D

7. C

8. B

9. C

10. C

11.

The Integumentary System

Terminology

Absorption (function of the skin) - A function of the skin where pores draw in substances applied to the skin's surface.

Accessory organs - Organs, or distinct collections of tissues, that contribute to the function of the cutaneous membrane. These are the hair, nails, cuticles, and sebaceous glands (oil) and sudoriferous glands (sweat).

Collagen - A fibrous, insoluble protein consisting of bundles of tiny reticular fibrils that combine to form the inelastic fibers of the tendons, the ligaments, and the fascia. It is found in connective tissue, including skin, bone, ligaments, and cartilage.

Contagious skin conditions - Contagious skin conditions include pathologies that can be spread from person to person related to fungi, bacteria, viruses, or parasites. These include ringworm, Staphylococcus aureus, herpes simplex virus, scabies, lice, and others.

Contracture scars - Scars where a permanent tightening of the skin occurs, usually as a result of a burn.

Cutaneous membrane - The body's outer layer of covering and protection; the skin.

Dermatome - Specific regions of the skin labeled according to the level at which their nerve fibers connect with the spinal cord.

Dermis - The deeper layer of the skin beneath the epidermis containing blood and lymph vessels, nerves, and accessory organs. The dermis is divided into two layers: the thin, outer papillary layer and the thicker, deep reticular layer.

Elastin - A fibrous protein, similar to collagen, that coils and recoils like a spring and accounts for the elasticity of structures such as the skin, blood vessels, heart, lungs, intestines, tendons, and ligaments.

Epidermis - The most superficial layer of skin comprised of five distinct layers (strata): stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale.

Excretion (function of the skin) - A function of the skin that involves sweating, which helps the body eliminate trace amounts of metabolic waste products through the pores of the skin.

Free nerve endings - Sensory receptors in the skin that are sensitive to light touch, light pressure, and temperature, with separate receptors being sensitive to heat and cold. Nociceptors are free nerve endings that detect potentially damaging stimuli, often resulting in the perception of pain.

Function of the skin - The functions of the skin are based on the combined actions of both the cutaneous membrane and accessory organs. They are protection, temperature regulation, excretion, absorption, general sensory gathering, and synthesis of vitamin D.

Hair - A dead, keratinized thread of cells protruding through the epidermis that provides protection for the skin.

Hair root plexus - A type of sensory receptor in the skin that wraps around the hair follicle and is sensitive to any movement of the exposed hair shaft.

Incision - A surgical cut into skin.

Integumentary system - The body system made up of the cutaneous membrane and its accessory organs (hair, nails, cuticles, oil and sweat glands); the skin.

Keloid scar - An overgrowth of collagen within a scar that produces a lump much larger than the original scar.

Keratin - A water-resistant substance that provides protection for the skin.

Keratinocytes - Epidermal cells that produce keratin.

Langerhans cell - A specialized immune cell found largely in the stratum spinosum layer of the epidermis that protects the body from organisms that penetrate the superficial epidermis.

Meissner's corpuscles - A type of sensory receptor in the skin that is sensitive to vibration and light touch. They are concentrated in the fingertips, lips, toes, and external genitalia.

Melanin - A dark pigment in the skin that protects it from UV radiation.

Melanocytes - Epidermal cells that produce melanin.

Merkel's discs - A type of sensory receptor in the skin that is sensitive to light touch. They are concentrated in the fingertips, lips, and external genitalia.

Nails - An accessory organ of the skin, found at the end of fingers and toes, that provides protection and the ability to scratch and grasp small objects.

Nociceptors - Pain receptors that are sensitive to chemicals released by damaged cells.

Noncontagious skin conditions - Noncontagious skin conditions include pathologies that are not spread from person to person. These include acne, eczema, hives, psoriasis, vitiligo, and others.

Pacinian corpuscles - A type of sensory receptor in the skin that is sensitive to high-frequency vibrations and deep pressure. They are located in the skin, but also found in the superficial fascia around joints, tendons, and muscles.

Papillary region - A layer of the dermis made up of collagen, elastin fibers, and projections called dermal papillae that extend into the epidermis to anchor the dermis.

Pores - Tiny openings in the epidermis that provide for excretion and absorption.

Protection (function of the skin) - A function of the skin, which provides a physical barrier against invading organisms and contaminants.

Reticular region - The deeper layer of the dermis made up of disorganized fibrous connective tissue and collagen that attaches the dermis to the adipose layer below. It contains the origins of most of the skin's accessory organs.

Ruffini corpuscles - A type of sensory receptor in the skin that is sensitive to deep touch, pressure, and tissue distortion.

Scar tissue - The connective tissue forming a scar, composed chiefly of fibroblasts in new scars and dense collagen in older scars.

Sebaceous glands - Oil glands that secrete sebum, an oily/waxy fluid that keeps skin soft and pliable.

Sebum - An oily secretion from sebaceous glands that keeps skin soft and pliable.

Sensory reception (function of the skin) - The skin contains a variety of sensory organs that are sensitive to touch, temperature, pain, vibration, and pressure. They include free nerve endings, Merkel's discs, Meissner's corpuscles, Pacinian corpuscles, Ruffini corpuscles, and hair root plexuses.

Sensory receptors - General term for receptors that register sensation: general receptors are scattered throughout skin, muscle, fascia, and joints; specialized receptors are concentrated into complex sense organs such as eyes, ears, nose, and tongue.

Skin - Also known as the cutaneous membrane and the primary organ of the integumentary system, this organ provides protection, temperature regulation, excretion, absorption, sensation, and vitamin D synthesis.

Skin injuries - Any damage to the skin including burns, abrasions, cuts, scrapes, and lacerations.

Strata - A term used to describe the five distinct layers of the epidermis.

Stratum basale (germinating layer) - The deepest layer of the epidermis where keratinocytes continually undergo mitosis to create new cells; also called the germinating layer or the stratum germinativum.

Stratum corneum (horny layer) - The outermost layer of the epidermis where dead, keratinized cells form a protective layer and are constantly being sloughed off.

Stratum granulosum (granular layer) - The layer of the epidermis in which keratinocytes release a lipid secretion that is water resistant.

Stratum lucidum (clear layer) - A layer of the epidermis that is present in the palms, fingertips, and soles of the feet where skin is thickest.

Stratum spinosum (spiny layer) - A layer of the epidermis containing specialized immune cells (Langerhans cells) that protect the body from organisms that penetrate the superficial epidermis.

Subcutaneous layer - A layer composed of fat and areolar connective tissue that lies between the dermis and deeper tissues and organs; also known as hypodermis or superficial fascia.

Sudoriferous glands - An accessory organ of the skin comprised of glands that secrete sweat through the pores of the skin.

Superficial fascia - A layer composed of fat and areolar connective tissue that lies between the dermis and deeper tissues and organs; also known as hypodermis or subcutaneous layer.

Synthesis of vitamin D (function of the skin) - A function of the skin where ultraviolet light is absorbed by the skin and stimulates the synthesis of vitamin D, which is necessary for the absorption of calcium and phosphorous.

Tactile stimulation - Any stimulation involving touch, including pressure, vibration, and deep and light touch.

Temperature regulation (function of the skin) - A function of the integumentary system; sweat helps cool the body via evaporation; the layer of fat under the skin helps retain heat.

Touch deprivation - Pathological conditions that can arise from lack of physical contact; common in infants and the elderly, with symptoms ranging from depression and anxiety to organ failure and death.

Practice Quiz

1. The deep, dense connective tissue layer of skin is the:

a. aponeurosis

b. dermis

c. epidermis

d. epidural

2. What are the small openings for sweat and sebaceous glands?

a. foramena

b. canaliculi

c. pores

d. cavernosa

3. What is a type of sensory receptor in the skin that wraps around the hair follicle and is sensitive to any movement of the exposed hair shaft?

a. Meissner's corpuscles

b. Merkel's discs

c. Ruffini corpuscle

d. hair root plexus

4. The sensory receptors of incoming nerves in the mouth, eyelids, skin, and other places sensitive to cold are called:

a. Meissner's corpuscles

b. Lamellar granules

c. Krause end bulbs

d. Ruffini endings

5. The tube-shaped depression in the dermis that gives rise to hair is called a:

a. follicle

b. arrector dermis

c. eccrine gland

d. duct

6. The layer of the dermis made up of collagen, elastin fibers, and dermal papillae projections that extend into the epidermis to anchor the dermis is called what?

a. keratin region

b. papillary region

c. reticular region

d. melanin region

7. Which component of the skin gives it its color and protects against ultraviolet rays from the sun?

a. melanin

b. keratin

c. stratum corneum

d. stratum lucidum

8. What is the primary skin component that determines skin color?

a. pigment

b. subcutaneous cells

c. epidermal cells

d. melanin

9. The sebaceous glands are commonly referred to as:

a. sweat glands

b. protein glands

c. fat glands

d. oil glands

10. The main, visible part of the nail is the:

a. cuticle

b. lunula

c. nail body

d. free nail edge

11. The word "integument" translates as:

a. outer layer

b. epidermis

c. covering

d. skin

12. What do you call the oil-producing glands of the skin?

a. sebaceous glands

b. sudoriferous glands

c. pineal glands

d. keloid glands

13. The protein that gives skin both strength and flexibility is called:

a. collagen

b. keratin

c. melanin

d. elastin

14. The excessive growth of scar tissue over a healed wound is a:

a. contracture

b. keloid

c. angioma

d. tumor

15. Nails and hair are referred to as accessory organs or:

a. keritinized structures

b. dermal appendages

c. external skin structures

d. epidermal appendages

16. Meissner's corpuscle is an example of a:

a. temperature receptor

b. touch receptor

c. pain receptor

d. stretch receptor

17. What is the sweat gland that secretes a thick, milky fluid that when broken down by skin bacteria produces an odor?

a. subcutaneous gland

b. apocrine gland

c. eccrine gland

d. sebaceous gland

18. Sudoriferous glands produce:

a. sebum

b. mucus

c. sweat

d. saliva

19. What is a water-resistant substance that provides protection for the skin?

a. collagen

b. melanin

c. keratin

d. elastin

20. Langerhans cells are found in the _____ and help protect the body from invading bacteria or viruses.

a. sensory receptors

b. adipose tissue

c. subcutaneous layer

d. epidermis

21. A fibrous protein that coils and recoils like a spring and accounts for the elasticity of structures such as the skin, blood vessels, heart, lungs, intestines, tendons, and ligaments is:

a. melanin

b. collagen

c. keratin

d. elastin

22. Organs contained in the skin but not directly related to its primary function are:

a. extras

b. ancillary organs

c. support structures

d. accessory organs

23. The area of skin innervated by a spinal nerve is a:

a. spinal segment

b. myotome

c. dermatome

d. dermal section

24. Ruffini's corpuscle is an example of a:

a. pain receptor

b. blod cell

c. neuron

d. pressure receptor

Practice Quiz Answer Key

1. B

2. C

3. D

4. C

5. A

6. B

7. A

8. D

9. D

10. C

11. C

12. A

13. A

14. B

15. B

16. B

17. B

18. C

19. C

20. D

21. D

22. D

23. C

24. D

The Skeletal System

Terminology

Amphiarthrotic joint - A type of joint classified by function, where the joint structures permit a moderate amount of movement. Amphiarthrotic joints are structurally classified as symphysis joints (held together by a fibrocartilage disc) or synchondrosis joints (held together by hyaline cartilage).

Appendicular skeleton - One of two divisions of the skeleton (axial skeleton is the other) that includes the bones of the pectoral girdle, upper extremity, pelvic girdle, and lower extremity.

Articular cartilage - A type of hyaline cartilage that covers the articulating surfaces of bones, particularly in a synovial joint.

Articulation - A place where two or more bones are joined together for the purpose of allowing body parts to move; also called a joint.

Atlas (C1) - The first cervical vertebra, which articulates with the occiput superiorly and the axis inferiorly.

Axial skeleton - One of two divisions of the skeleton (appendicular skeleton is the other) that includes the bones of the skull, vertebrae, ribs, and sternum.

Axis (C2) - The second cervical vertebra, characterized by a large projection called the dens, which articulates with the osseous ring of the atlas.

Blood cell production (function of the skeletal system) - A function of the skeletal system where blood cells are produced in the red bone marrow inside bones.

Bone marrow - A soft, gelatinous tissue that fills the cavities of bones. It is either red or yellow depending upon the amount of hematopoietic (red) or fatty (yellow) tissue. From birth until approximately seven, all human marrow is red. Fat tissue gradually replaces the red marrow, which in adults is found only in the bones of the vertebrae, hips, sternum, ribs, and skull, and at the ends of the long bones of the arms and legs.

Bone remodeling - An ongoing process where bones are broken down (resorption) and built up (deposition).

Bone tissue - A hard form of connective tissue, whose matrix consists of collagen fibers and ground substance and in which are deposited calcium salts (phosphate, carbonate, and some fluoride). Bone tissue is also called osseous tissue and is the major structural and supportive connective tissue of the body.

Bones of the lower extremity - The bones that comprise the thigh, leg, and foot: femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, cuneiforms, metatarsals, and phalanges.

Bones of the pectoral girdle - The bones that attach the upper extremity to the axial skeleton: clavicle and scapula.

Bones of the pelvic girdle - The bones that attach the lower extremity to the axial skeleton: the os coxae formed by the fused ilium, ischium, and pubis.

Bones of the skull - The bones that form the cranium and face. The cranial bones include: frontal bones, parietal bone, temporal bones, occipital bone, sphenoid bone, and ethmoid bone. The facial bones include: lacrimal bones, nasal bones, nasal concha bones, vomer bone, palatine bones, zygomatic bones, maxilla bones, and mandible bone.

Bones of the spinal column - The spinal column is composed of 33 vertebrae divided into five regions. The cervical region has 7 vertebrae (C1–C7). C1 is also known as the atlas and C2 is also known as the axis. The thoracic region has 12 vertebrae (T1–T12). The lumbar region has 5 vertebrae (L1–L5). The sacral area has 5 fused vertebrae (S1–S5). The coccygeal area has 3 or 4 fused vertebrae that may be designated as Co1–Co4.

Bones of the thorax - The bones that form the chest region: the rib cage consisting of the sternum (three fused sections) and 12 pairs of costals (ribs).

Bones of the upper extremity - The bones that comprise the upper arm, forearm, and hand: humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges.

Bony landmarks - The lines, grooves, bumps, marks, and projections on a bone that serve as attachment points for muscles, or passageways for blood vessels and nerves. Often used by massage practitioners as a way to locate structures or determine symmetry or asymmetry, as with a posture assessment.

Bursae - Small synovial, fluid-filled sacs that create a friction-reducing cushion between structures at joints.

Cartilaginous joint - A type of joint classified by structure, where the bones of the joint are held together by fibrocartilage (called a symphysis joint) or hyaline cartilage (called a synchondrosis joint). Cartilaginous joints are functionally classified as amphiarthrotic joints because they permit a moderate amount of movement. Examples include intervertebral discs and adjacent vertebrae, the articulation between the first rib and sternum, and the pubic symphysis.

Compact bone - One of two types of bone tissue that is dense, with a hard matrix that renders it resistant to body weight and movement stresses. It is also called cortical bone.

Deposition (bone remodeling) - Part of the process of bone remodeling that refers to the building up of new bone tissue.

Diaphysis (bone anatomy) - The main body of a long bone that is built from compact bone tissue.

Diarthrotic joint - A type of joint classified by function, where the joint structures are freely moveable. Diarthrotic joints are structurally classified as synovial joints where the bones of the joint are held together by a joint capsule. Examples include ball-and-socket-shaped joints of the shoulder and hip, and hinge-shaped joints of the knees and elbows.

Epiphyseal plate (bone anatomy) - A region between the epiphysis and diaphysis where bone growth occurs in children and adolescents; also called the growth plate.

Epiphysis (bone anatomy) - The ends of a long bone composed of spongy bone.

Fibrous joint - A type of joint classified by structure, where the bones of the joint are held together by dense fibrous connective tissue. Functionally classified as synarthrotic joints because they allow for little or no movement between the bones (e.g., suture joints of the skull).

Flat bone (bone shape) - Thin bones that protect vital organs, such as the pelvis or sternum.

Framework and support (function of the skeletal system) - A function of the skeletal system is to provide a framework of structure and support for the soft tissues and internal organs.

Functional classification of joints - A classification of joints based on their function (the degree of movement allowed at the joint). There are three classifications: synarthrotic, amphiarthrotic, and diarthrotic.

Hyaline cartilage - A semi-transparent and flexible connective tissue made up of collagen and matrix composed of proteins and water. It functions to withstand both pulling and compressive forces and is found in the trachea, larynx, and joint surfaces.

Iliac crest - The curved ridge at the top of the pelvic bone.

Irregular bone (bone shape) - Uniquely shaped bones that don't fit into other classifications (e.g., the vertebrae and some facial bones).

Joint - A place where two or more bones are joined together for the purpose of allowing body parts to move; also called an articulation.

Joint capsule - A fibrous connective tissue sleeve that surrounds the articular cavity of a freely movable joint, is attached to the bones, completely encloses the joint, and is composed of an outer fibrous membrane and an inner synovial membrane.

Joint cavity - The closed sac formed by the joint capsule, which contains the synovial fluid.

Levers and fulcrums (function of the skeletal system) - A function of the skeletal system where bones and joints serve as rigid structures for muscles to move in order to create locomotion.

Ligament - Connective tissue that attaches bone to bone.

Long bone (bone shape) - Bones that are composed of a long shaft (diaphysis) and two heads (epiphyses).

Medullary cavity (bone anatomy) - The cavity within bones that contains bone marrow.

Metaphysis (bone anatomy) - The wide portion of a long bone where the diaphysis and epiphysis meet, and the location of the epiphyseal plate.

Mineral storage (function of the skeletal system) - A function of the skeletal system where bones provide the main storage sites for calcium, phosphorus, and other minerals.

Osseous tissue - A hard form of connective tissue, whose matrix consists of collagen fibers and ground substance and in which are deposited calcium salts (phosphate, carbonate, and some fluoride). Osseous tissue is also called bone tissue and is the major structural and supportive connective tissue of the body.

Osteoblasts - A type of cell found in bone tissue that aids in bone formation.

Osteoclasts - A type of cell found in bone tissue that breaks down bone as part of bone matrix resorption.

Osteocytes - A type of cell found in bone tissue that functions in the exchange of nutrients and wastes, and that maintains bone as living tissue.

Osteogenic - A general term referring to the formation of bone.

Osteogenic cells - A type of cell found in bone tissue that undergoes mitosis and produces cells that develop into osteoblasts.

Pedicle - A bony segment between the transverse processes and the vertebral body.

Periosteum - A dense membrane composed of fibrous connective tissue that closely wraps all bone (except for the articulating surfaces in joints) and serves as the attachment point for ligaments and tendons.

Protection (function of the skeletal system) - A function of the skeletal system where bones provide protection for internal organs and protective channels or openings for blood vessels and nerves.

Red bone marrow - One of two types of bone marrow in the body. It consists of highly vascular fibrous tissue containing stem cells, which differentiate into erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), and thrombocytes (platelets).

Resorption (bone remodeling) - Part of the process of bone remodeling that refers to the breakdown of bone tissue.

Shaft - A common term referring to the diaphysis of a long bone.

Short bone (bone shape) - Bones that are almost equal in length and width with a cube-like shape.

Skeletal system - The body's framework of bones that provide framework, support, protection, levers and fulcrums, mineral storage, and blood cell production. There are 206 distinct bones in the average adult human.

Spongy bone - One of two types of bone tissue made up of small structural beams called trabeculae that give the bone a spongy appearance and lighter weight; also called cancellous or trabecular bone.

Sternal angle - The joint between the manubrium and the body of the sternum.

Structural classification of joints - A classification of joints based on their structure. There are three classifications: fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial.

Symphysis joint - A type of cartilaginous joint (there are two types) where a fibrocartilage disc between the bodies of the articulating bones joins the bones together. Examples are the intervertebral disc joints of the spine and the symphysis pubis joint of the pelvis.

Synarthrotic joint - A type of joint classified by function, where the joint structures permit very little or no movement. Synarthrotic joints are structurally classified as fibrous joints, where the bones of the joint are held together by dense, fibrous connective tissue. Examples include the interlocking bones of the cranium known as the cranial sutures.

Synchondrosis joint - A type of cartilaginous joint (there are two types) where hyaline cartilage joins the two articulating bones together. An example is the costal cartilage located between a rib and the sternum.

Syndesmosis joint - A joint in which the bones are united by fibrous connective tissue forming an interosseous membrane or ligament, such as the tibiofibular joints.

Synovial fluid - Fluid within the synovial cavity that lubricates and nourishes the joint.

Synovial joint - A type of joint classified by structure where the bones of the joint are held together by a joint capsule. Synovial joints are functionally classified as diarthrotic joints because they allow for a great deal of movement between the bones, as in the hip and shoulder joints.

Synovial joint anatomy - All synovial joints share a number of structural elements including articular cartilage, a joint capsule, a synovial membrane, ligaments, and bursae.

Synovial joint types - The different types of synovial joints are defined according to the shape of the bone ends, the way they articulate, and the movements they allow. These include pivot joints, gliding joints, condyloid/elipsoid joints, ball-and-socket joints, hinge joints, and saddle joints.

Synovial membrane - A layer of connective tissue that lines the cavities of joints, tendon sheaths, and bursae, and makes synovial fluid.

Trapezium - The most lateral of the distal carpal row that articulates with the thumb.

Yellow bone marrow - One of two types of bone marrow in the body. It serves primarily as a storehouse for fats, but may be converted to red marrow under certain conditions, such as severe blood loss. As people age, much of the body's red bone marrow is replaced by yellow marrow.

Practice Quiz

1. Which term refers to the cells in the bone marrow that help with bone production?

a. osteoblasts

b. osteoclasts

c. osteocytes

d. chondroblasts

2. Name a fibrous joint that allows little to no movement:

a. diarthrotic joint

b/ amphiarthrotic joint

c. synarthrotic joint

d. synovial joint

3. Which of the following is NOT a synovial joint?

a. hinge joint

b. fibrous joint

c. ball-and-socket joint

d. pivot joint

4. Which term refers to a narrow, rough surface on the middle third of the posterior femur?

a. linea aspera

b. adductor tubercle

c. posterior condyle

d. pectineal line

5. Which term best describes a skeletal structure designed specifically to support or enclose?

a. enclosure structure

b. framework

c. latticework

d. layered bones

6. Name the large distal end of the fibula that projects over the lateral talus:

a. pes anserinus

b. lateral malleolus

c. lateral condyle

d. soleal line

7. The most distal attachment of the adductor magnus is the:

a. medial femoral condyle

b. medial epicondyle

c. tibial plateau

d. adductor tubercle

8. Which term refers to the smooth tissue that covers the ends of bones where they come together to form joints?

a. synovial cartilage

b. cartilaginous cartilage

c. articular cartilage

d. fibrous cartilage

9. What is the name given to the shoulder blade?

a. clavicle

b. scapula

c. acromion

d. coracoid

10. Name the inferior curved junction between the medial and lateral borders of the scapula:

a. medial angle

b. superior angle

c. lateral angle

d. inferior angle

11. Name that part of the skeleton created by the two hip bones that come together and join the symphysis pubis:

a. inferior ramus of the pubis

b. pelvic girdle

c. iliac crest

d. ischial tuberosity

12. A small section of bone that protrudes from the proximal end of the tibia is called the:

a. soleal line

b. pes anserinus

c. tibial facet

d. intercondylar eminence

13. The sacral vertebrae are the triangular-shaped bones below the lumbar vertebrae, and are formed by how many fused bones?

a. 8

b. 3

c. 5

d. 10

14. Which term refers to a bony segment between the transverse processes and the vertebral body?

a. lamina groove

b. vertebral foreman

c. pedicle

d. superior facet

15. Which term describes the enlargement on the medial side of the distal tibia that projects over the medial talus?

a. medial condyle

b. medial malleolus

c. soleal line

d. intercondylar tubercle

16. Another term for bone tissue is:

a. adipose tissue

b. synovial tissue

c. osseus tissue

d. neuronal tissue

17. Muscles connect to bones via:

a. ligaments

b. tendons

c. joints

d. fascia

18. Which term refers to the most lateral of the distal carpal row that articulates with the thumb?

a. luante

b. trapezium

c. trapezoid

d. scaphoid

19. The lateral edge of the scapula is referred to as the:

a. acromial angle

b. infraglenoid tubercle

c. superior angle

d. lateral border

20. This type of bone is made up of small structural beams called trabeculae that give the bone lighter weight:

a. resorptive bone

b. spongy bone

c. yellow bone

d. compact bone

21. Which term best describes the cartilage that connects the sternum and the ends of the ribs?

a. costal cartilage

b. lumbar vertebral cartilage

c. thoracic vertebral cartilage

d. sternal transverse cartilage

22. Which term best describes the cartilage that connects the sternum and the ends of the ribs?

a. capsules

b. discs

c. membranes

d. joints

23. Bone-forming cells found on the periosteum are called:

a. osteoclasts

b. cartilage

c. osteoblasts

d. marrow

24. Which term refers to the hard, dense bones that have a shaft and two ends and are longer than they are wide?

a. flat bone

b. sutural bone

c. sesamoid bone

d. long bone

25. Ribs 11–12 with no connection to the sternum are referred to as:

a. true ribs

b. false ribs

c. floating ribs

d. costal ribs

26. Which term refers to any of the joints between the phalangeal bones of the fingers and toes?

a. transverse tarsal joint

b. tarsometatarsal joint

c. intermetatarsal joint

d. interphalangeal joint

27. What term best describes the concave surface on the posterior aspect of the scapula, inferior to the scapular spine?

a. infraspinous fossa

b. superior notch

c. subscapular fossa

d. supraspinous fossa

28. A type of hyaline cartilage that covers the articulating surfaces of bones, particularly in a synovial joint is called:

a. bony cartilage

b. synovial cartilage

c. osseous cartilage

d. articular cartilage

29. Name the posterior projections of the vertebrae used for muscle attachment:

a. transverse processes

b. superior facets

c. odontoid processes

d. spinous processes

Practice Quiz Answer Key

1. A

2. C

3. B

4. A

5. B

6. B

7. D

8. C

9. B

10. D

11. B

12. D

13. C

14. C

15. B

16. C

17. B

18. B

19. D

20. B

21. A

22. D

23. C

24. D

25. C

26. D

27. A

28. D

29. D